"The Country We Lost": 9 Myths about the Russian Empire

Mythologization of the past is a common phenomenon. For example, in Russia, some people tend to idealize or demonize the Soviet past, while others tend to the times of the empire. The reality, however, usually turns out to be somewhat more complicated than an exaggerated black-and-white picture. We analyze the most popular misconceptions about the Russian Empire.

1. The reforms of Peter I had only favorable consequences

Peter I became Korb I-G., Zhelyabuzhsky I., Matveev A. The birth of an empire. M. 1997 the first Russian emperor. He is rightfully called the creator of the "window to Europe" and is called the title "Great". Through the efforts of Peter, Russia entered the Baltic and Black Seas, created an army and navy according to the European model. Significant transformations have taken place in all spheres of society: from public service to dressing.

It is generally accepted to consider Peter's reforms to be unambiguously positive, but one must understand that fundamental changes had a great price.

Despite the fact that the first Russian emperor was considered a progressive monarch, he was a man of his time. And it was pretty cruel. Therefore, he often carried out his transformations by violent means.

Here you can also remember forced shaving.Akeliev E.V. From the history of the introduction of barber and "German" costume in Peter's Russia. Quaestio Rossica beards to the boyars, which was, in general, offensive to the representatives of the highest Russian nobility. Do not forget about the strict laws that Peter introduced in relation to his subjects - for example, about penalties for disapproving remarks about the king. Also, the first Russian emperor actually officially allowed the sale of people - serfs.

However, it is obvious that people - both serfs and free - were rather a resource for Peter. So, a lot of peasants perished during the rapid construction of cities, including St. Petersburg, canals, fortresses, where they were driven in thousands for heavy forced labor.

Peter hastily Korb I-G., Zhelyabuzhsky I., Matveev A. The birth of an empire. M. 1997 he reshaped the country to fit the European model, which he considered a landmark, not without reason. But at the same time, he did not tolerate any objections, did not reckon with the established norms and practically instilled new ones by force.

For example, one of the victims of Peter's modernization was the son of the emperor. Peter condemned his elder son Alexei for betrayal, who became close to people dissatisfied with the reforms, and fled abroad, hoping to eventually take his father's place. He died in prison under unexplained circumstances.

For all this, many historians, including monarchical ones, later reproached Peter.

2. Potemkin villages were shown to Catherine II in Crimea

Another historical myth is associated with the name of another great ruler of the Russian Empire, Catherine II.

In 1787, the empress took an unprecedented step for her time: with her companions and foreign ambassadors, she went to the Crimea, recently conquered by Russian troops. And this despite the fact that not so long ago cannons and muskets died down, and memories of the Pugachev uprising of 1773-1775 were still fresh in my memory.

As a result, they crawledPanchenko A.M. Potemkin villages as a cultural myth. Russian history and culture: Works of different years. SPb. 1999 unpleasant rumors. Allegedly, during a voyage, Prince Grigory Potemkin, the conqueror of the Crimea and the Empress's favorite, staged a demonstration show for Catherine II with feigned wealthy villages and contented residents. That is, everything that the empress saw in the Crimea was allegedly fake and erected for her arrival.

But this had little to do with reality. Rumors about fake villages Potemkin's ill-wishers began to spread long before Catherine's trip. They were actively picked up by foreign guests. And they even wrote about it in diplomatic reports

Potemkin really abundantly decorated the places where the high delegation passed: he hung up the illumination, held parades, launched fireworks. It was quite in the spirit of official visits of that time, and the prince himself did not hide the fact of decoration.

At the same time, in dozens of other descriptions of Catherine's journey, there is not a single hint of Potemkin villages.

3. The Russian army won the Patriotic War of 1812 thanks to "General Moroz"

In June 1812, a half-million French army led by the greatest commander of the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte invaded to Russia. Five months later, retreating and crossing the border river Berezina, only 60-90 thousand French soldiers left the country.

Almost immediately after that, the English cartoon "General Frost Shaves Baby Bonnie" by William Ames appeared in print.

Perhaps partly related to it is the widespread misconception that weather conditions ensured Russia victory over such a serious adversary. But in reality this is unlikely.

So, according to some participants in the war, for example Denis DavydovD. IN. Did frost destroy the French army in 1812? Guerrilla Action Diary, three quarters of Napoleon's army were in complete disarray even before the onset of cold weather. In general, the French general, the Marquis de Chambray, who participated in the Russian campaign, agreed with this assessment. He emphasizedde Chambray G. Histoire de l'expédition de Russie. Pillet aîné. 1823that not all parts of the Napoleonic army were disoriented due to the frost and it was even useful for the retreating.

The troops of the French emperor were greatly stretched, supplies were working very badly. In addition, one should not forget about the serious losses of Napoleon in a number of battles of the Russian campaign and several months of the corrupting inaction of the French army after it occupied Moscow.

In fact, severe frosts hitDavydov D.V. Did frost destroy the French army in 1812? Guerrilla Action Diary after the French army crossed the Berezina and left Russia, they could no longer make a serious contribution to the victory of the Russian army.

4. The peoples included in the empire did not know the oppression

There is a fairly widespread misconception that the Russian Empire almost paternalized other peoples when it expanded its vast territory.

Sometimes politics really was A. Russia is a multinational empire. M. 2000 very flexible and loyal. So, there were no prohibitions on the confession of a national religion, even temple buildings were erected for Muslims, Jews and Buddhists. Part of the local elite joined the Russian high society. But it is hardly possible to call the imperial national policy particularly peaceful.

In a situation where most of the country's population was in the status of serfs - that is, they could be sold, exchange or donate - it is difficult to imagine that the attitude towards foreigners, and especially towards those of other faiths, will be significant it is better.

Not all peoples favorably evaluated the entry into the Russian Empire.

This is what they say A. Russia is a multinational empire. M. 2000 numerous anti-government uprisings of the Yakuts, Buryats, Koryaks, Chukchi, Bashkirs, Chuvashes, Mordovians, Udmurts, Mari, Tatars, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, peoples of the Caucasus and others. The local population, for example, took an active part in the uprisings of Stepan Razin and Yemelyan Pugachev.

Often the rules of the new administration contradicted the life and way of life of the old population. For example, the authorities could force nomads to agriculture, which they never did. And the punitive measures only ruined the small nations more.

Large-scale resettlements have also taken place. For example, during the conquest of Crimea, local Armenians and Greeks were sent to the Azov province. And during the years of the Caucasian War, a significant part of the Circassians, as well as other Caucasian peoples, were evicted Hotko S.Kh. Essays on the history of the Circassians: ethnogenesis, antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern times, modernity. SPb. 2001 to the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and the Kuban region.

Aliens and gentiles in imperial Russia also did not have equal rights. For example, the story of the Buryat ethnographer Gombozhab Tsybikov, the first foreigner to photograph the capital of the Tibetan Dalai Lama, Lhasa, is indicative. At St. Petersburg University he was deprived of Dorzhiev Zh.D., Kondratov A.M. Gombozhab Tsybikov. Irkutsk. 1990 scholarships, since only Orthodox Christians were allowed to receive it. However, in many other educational institutions, Tsybikov, being a Buddhist, would not have been able to enter at all.

We should not forget about the underlined anti-Semitism of the tsarist nationality policy. For Jews there wasRussia Virtual Jewish History Tour the Pale of Settlement was established, which included Novorossiya, Crimea, part of Central and Eastern Ukraine and Bessarabia. Also for them there were restrictions on movement and infringement of rights, bans on wearing national clothes, percentage quotas for admission to educational institutions.

So, the Jews were even reproachedNovoselsky S.A. Reducing mortality in Russia. Mortality and life expectancy in Russia. Petrograd. 1916 in the fact that, having developed in themselves over time immunity to tuberculosis, they spread it among the rest of the population.

The royal authorities also accuse Kopansky J. M. The Chisinau Pogrom of 1903: A View Through a Century. Materials of the international scientific conference. Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Moldova, Institute for Interethnic Studies. Department of History and Culture of the Jews of Moldova. Kishinev. 2004 in indulging in large-scale Jewish pogroms. For example, in Chisinau 1903 and Bialystok 1906.

5. Alexander II made all peasants free

For a long time, serfdom persisted in Russia - a system when a significant part of the population was assigned to the farms (estates) of the nobility, worked on their land and in fact was not free and disenfranchised.

In 1861, its history, which lasted several centuries, endedThe Highest Manifesto of February 19, 1861 "On the all-merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants." Russian legislation of the X-XX centuries: in 9 volumes. V.7. Peasant reform documents. M. 1989. But one should not think that after the reform of the then reigning Emperor Alexander II, all the peasants became absolutely free.

The point is that the addiction has, in fact, been replaced with a lifetime loan. According to the reform, the peasants received a plot of land for use so that they could feed themselves. However, it was not given free of charge. The state bought the land of the nobles, for the right to further cultivate which the peasants had to pay huge money at that time - redemption payments.

The ransom was supposed to last 49 years, while the total peasant had to pay three times the cost of the plot - it turned out such a peculiar credit.

The peasants paid this deposit for their own freedom for decades, until in 1904 their debts (127 million rubles) were written off by decree25014. August 11. Manifesto. - "About the favors bestowed on the day of Holy Baptism of the Heir to the Tsarevich and Grand Duke Alexei Nikolaevich." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XXIV. 1904 g. SPb. 1907 Emperor Nicholas II. In total, for more than 40 years, several1584. - May 15. Named, given to the Senate. - "On measures to facilitate the transfer of noblemen-landowners, according to their estates, peasants into the category of peasant-proprietors." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume III. 1883 g. SPb. 1886; 3803. - June 12. "The highest approved Regulation on employment in rural work." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume VI. 1886 g. SPb. 1888; 10328. - February 7. Highest approved opinion of the State Council. - "On the procedure for deferral and payment by installments of arrears of redemption payments." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XIV. 1894 g. SPb. 1898; 12892. - May 8. Highest approved opinion of the Council of State. - "On Loans for Agricultural Improvements." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XVI. Branch 1. 1896 g. SPb. 1899; 22627. - March 12. A personalized Imperial decree given to the Senate. - "On the abolition of the collective responsibility of peasants for the payment of salary dues in the localities in which the Regulations on June 23, 1899 on the procedure for collecting these fees from allotment lands of rural societies were enacted." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XXIII. Branch 1. 1903 g. SPb. 1905 laws that made it easier for peasants to transition to personal and economic independence.

In legal terms, there was no instant release either. So, until 1904, the25014. August 11. Manifesto. - "About the favors bestowed on the day of Holy Baptism of the Heir to the Tsarevich and Grand Duke Alexei Nikolaevich." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XXIV. 1904 g. SPb. 1907 practice of corporal punishment for non-payment taxes.

So, in fact, the liberation of the largest group of the empire's population took place much later than the reform of 1861 and the reign of Alexander II.

6. At the beginning of the 20th century, public education and medicine improved significantly in the country.

Today, more and more often you can hear that the Russian Empire in the last years of its existence developed at a frantic pace, and the revolutions interrupted this process. In particular, supporters of this view speak of significant successes in the field of popular education and medicine.

So, for the period from 1908 to 1914, the costs of the Ministry of Public Education increasedThe draft state list of income and expenses for 1914 with an explanatory note from the Minister of Finance. SPb. 1913 more than three times: from 53 million to 161 million 600 thousand rubles. And in comparison with the indicators of 1893 (22 million 400 thousand rubles), this figure has increased almost eight times. Similar processes took place in the field of medicine.

However, these successes were very modest - contrary to the opinion that is gaining popularity today.

The main indicators literacy then there was the ability to read and write. Moreover, not every inhabitant possessed at least the first of these two skills. So, according to the 1897 census, only 27%The first general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897 General summary for the Empire of the results of the development of data from the First General Census of the Population, carried out on January 28, 1897. SPb. 1905 the inhabitants of the empire were literate.

For a long time, only children of officials and nobles could study in gymnasiums and universities in accordance with 434. June 5. - "On reducing the number of students in gymnasiums and gymnasiums and changing the composition of these" the so-called "circular of the cook's children" in 1887.

The law on compulsory primary education, contrary to popular belief, was not passed in the empire. Order 30328. - May 8. Highly approved by the State Council and the State Duma, the law "On the leave of 6,900,000 rubles for the needs of primary education." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XXVIII. Branch 1. 1908 g. SPb. 1911 1908, which is erroneously named as such, only allocated funds for the construction of new educational institutions and to help those schools that could not support themselves. At the same time, study in them was free.

Due to the lack of education of the population, "folk" methods of treatment were widespread: drugs, conspiracies, quackery and herbalism. Because of this, the morbidity and mortality from infections was incredibly high.

In terms of mortality from many diseases, Russia occupiedSection VI. Public education. Russian calendar for 1917 BUT. Suvorin (Forty-sixth year). Petrograd. 1916 first place among European countries. For example, from measles per 100 thousand inhabitants in Russia, about 91 people died, and in England and Wales - 35, in Austria and Hungary - 29, in Italy - 27, in Holland - 19, in Germany - 14. Such a huge gap was observed in mortality rates from smallpox, scarlet fever, whooping cough, diphtheria and typhoid fever.

Gradually, of course, the mortality rate decreased. If at the turn of the 1860s-70s, one thousand inhabitants diedNovoselsky S. BUT. Reducing mortality in Russia. Mortality and life expectancy in Russia. Petrograd. 1916 about 38 people, then by 1913 this figure was already about 28. This was due, among other things, to a gradual improvement in the situation with regard to infectious diseases. Therefore, there has been some progress in the field of public health.

However, infant mortality remained high and did not decline as rapidly. If in the second half of the 19th century, out of 100 newborns, 27 did not live up to one year, then by 1911 there were about 24 of them. This meant that insufficient sanitary and educational measures were taken.

Therefore, it is difficult to talk about any serious progress in the field of mass education and medicine in imperial Russia.

7. Before World War I, in terms of industrial development, Russia was not inferior to Europe

There is a belief, supported by some historians, that at the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire experienced a surge in industrial development.

In fact, it remained an agrarian country, which is clearly illustrated by the indicators of production and exports. So, Russia was in the leadForeign countries statistics. Statistical Yearbook 1913 (Council of Congresses of Industry and Trade Representatives). SPb. 1913 for the supply of agricultural products abroad: grain, wheat, rye, oats.

There were no such serious successes in the industry. In 1910, Russia exported almost half as many goods as Belgium. And in 1913 the volume of industrial production of the empire wasRussia 1913. Statistical and documentary reference book. SPb. 1995 5.3% of the world.

One of the main industrial indicators of that time - the volume of pig iron smelting - was also not high in Russia at that time. In absolute terms, he wasForeign countries statistics. Statistical Yearbook 1913 (Council of Congresses of Industry and Trade Representatives). SPb. 1913 nine times lower than in the United States, and 15 times lower per capita. The situation was similar in the steel industry.

By the beginning of World War I, Russia withdrewAnfimov A. The reign of Emperor Nicholas II in figures and facts. National history in second place in terms of the length of railways: it was 70 thousand kilometers. The leader - the United States - this figure was equal to 263 thousand kilometers.

So the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway can even be considered an engineering feat of that time.

However, considering the size of the empire's territory, the density of the railway network was very low. In addition, most of the railways were single-track, which made crossings, even over short distances, take an incredible amount of time.

Many highways were completed already in Soviet times. Due to the poor quality of the sleepers, the tracks had to be changed regularly.

The same growth that took place was largely due toAnfimov A. The reign of Emperor Nicholas II in figures and facts. National history foreign investments. For example, about 80% of copper production was concentrated in the hands of foreign companies. For example, they also owned significant assets in oil production and refining, mechanical engineering and other areas. At the same time, the external debt of the empire grew rapidly.

8. Workers and peasants generally lived well before the revolution

The other side of the myth-making around the Russian Empire is the spread of opinions that the life of the broadest strata of its population, workers and peasants, was not so hard. However, it is difficult to agree with this statement.

About how the liberation of the peasants from serfdom took place has already been said above. The introduction of local self-government bodies (zemstvos) in 1864 did not greatly simplify their life.

Basically, representatives of the zemstvos were electedPetrovicheva E. M. Zemstvos. Big Russian Encyclopedia of the nobles. Therefore, the peasants, if necessary, had to complain to the landowners about the landowners.

Ivan Solonevich, a supporter of the imperial power, eloquently wrote about the standard of living of the common peasant population in labor "People's Monarchy". He emphasized that in 1912, Russia's lag behind Western countries is indisputable, and its average inhabitant is seven times poorer the average American and twice the average Italian.

Weak health care and highNovoselsky S. BUT. Reducing mortality in Russia. Mortality and life expectancy in Russia. Petrograd. 1916 infant mortality, which was also discussed above, was the cause of low life expectancy. She was only 32.4–34.5 years old. At the same time, peasant families were far from always provided with even the necessary products.

The living and working conditions of the workers were also far from ideal. According to the law14231. - June 2. Highest approved opinion of the State Council. - "On the duration and distribution of working time in the establishments of the factory industry." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XVII. 1897 g. SPb. 1900 1897 worker day at manufactories, factories and factories was limited to 11.5 hours on weekdays and 10 on Saturdays. That is, before it was even larger. For example, it could go up to 14-15 hours a day. True, this was partially smoothed out by rest on all church and royal holidays (up to 38 days).

In fairness, I must say that certain measures were taken to improve the lives of industrial workers. Thus, underage workers were obliged2316. - June 12. Highest approved opinion of the State Council. - "On the school education of minors working in factories, factories and manufactories, on the duration of their work and on factory inspections." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume IV. 1884 g. SPb. 1887 attend schools at factories, provided25060. - June 2. "The highest approved Rules on the remuneration of victims of accidents of workers and employees, as well as members of their families, in the enterprises of the factory, mining and mining industry ". Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XXIII. Branch 1. 1903 g. SPb. 1905 compensation for injured at work, was introduced57444. - June 23. The highest approved law approved by the State Council and the State Duma. - "On the establishment of offices for workers' insurance." Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Collection Third. Volume XXXII. Branch 1. 1912 g. SPb. 1915 compulsory insurance.

Nevertheless, working conditions remainedLabor movement in Russia. 1895-February 1917 Chronicle. M. 1992 complex. Industrial injuries were high, women and children continued to make up a significant part of workers, and arbitrary fines could be as high as half of the salary.

Do not forget about such an indicator of the standard of living as the spread of prostitution. She was a legalized income in the Russian Empire.

As can be seen from all these data, the situation of a significant part of the population has gradually improved, but it cannot be called remarkable.

9. The Russian Empire fell because of the Bolsheviks

You can often hear that Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party brought down the Russian monarchy. But this can only be stated out of banal ignorance of facts from the usual school curriculum.

The thing is that Nicholas II and the autocratic system were overthrown by their own entourage during the FebruaryFebruary revolution. Big Russian Encyclopedia revolution. In February - March 1917, in the wake of a spontaneous uprising in Petrograd, caused by failures in domestic and foreign policy, new authorities were formed: the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government.

Nicholas was given an ultimatum to abdicate the throne, the military headquarters supported him, and the last emperor resigned. The new government failed to create a strong state, and on October 25, 1917, it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks already during October revolution.

Perhaps some of those who consider the Bolsheviks to be the destroyers of the empire associate this with the murder. Khrustalev V. M. The Romanovs. The last days of a great dynasty. M. 2013 them of the royal family and the suppression of the royal dynasty. However, by that time, the emperor had no real power for a long time.

And, by the way, not all opponents of Lenin and his party, including those in the Civil War, wanted to revive the monarchy.