What to read: "The Sixth Extinction" - a fascinating investigation of endangered biological species

Castello Aragonese - a tiny island, overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea like a gun turret. It is located about thirty kilometers to the west of Naples, and you can reach it with the neighboring, larger size of the island of Ischia by a narrow, long stone bridge. At the end of the bridge is booth in which ten euros you buy a ticket that allows you to climb - or, even better, by a lift - to the famous Castello Aragonese. The buildings of the castle, among other things is an exposition of medieval torture instruments, luxurious hotel and street cafes. On summer evenings, very comfortable to sit in the cafe, sipping Campari and thinking about the horrors of the past.

Like many other small formations, Castello Aragonese is a result of a substantial force - in this case drift towards the north of Africa, through which every year becomes Tripoli a few centimeters closer to Rome. Folds forming a complex system, African lithospheric plate is pressed into Eurasian, just as the deformed metal in the melting furnace. From time to time this process calls powerful volcanoes (one such eruption, which took place in 1302, forced the entire population to seek refuge in Ischia island of Castello Aragonese). But usually it manifests itself in the fact that from fumaroles on the seabed rising stream of gas bubbles - almost 100% of carbon (

approx. fumarole - the hole in the craters, and on the slopes at the foot of volcanoes, a source of hot gases).

Carbon dioxide has a number of interesting properties, one of which consists in the fact that it dissolves in water to form acids. I came to the island of Ischia in the end of January, in the low season, especially in order to swim in the bubbling waters of the Gulf of acidified. Marine biologists Jason Hall-Spencer, and Maria Cristina Buja promised to show me the underwater fumaroles, if not expected by rain forecast.

In the chilly gray day we sail on the former fishing boat converted into a research. Castello Aragonese go around and throw anchor about twenty meters from its stony shores. On the ship underwater cracks are not visible, but their visible signs. White stripe barnacles crustaceans surrounds the base of the island - except in the areas of fumaroles, where no barnacles. […]

The water is very cold. Hall-Spencer took a knifeHe poddevat with several stone sea urchins and hands me. Their needle inky black. We sail on, moving along the southern coast of the island in the direction of the fumaroles. Hall-Spencer Buja and from time to time stop to collect samples - corals, snails, algae and mussels - which are placed in net bags, dangling them in the water.

When we were close enough to the fumaroles, I see bubbles rising from the seabed and resembling balls of mercury. Below us swaying carpet of algae unusually bright green color. As I later learned, this is due to the lack of tiny organisms that usually cover algae and mute their natural color. The closer we swim up to the fumaroles, the less possible to find samples. Disappear and sea urchins, and mussels and barnacles. Buja is somewhat pathetic limpets, attached to the rock. Their shells thinned almost to the transparent state. Slips past us a flock of jellyfish in color only slightly lighter than water. "Caution - warns Hall-Spencer. - They sting. "

Since the industrial revolution, people as burning of fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas, - that the atmosphere have received about 365 billion tons of carbon.

Deforestation Add another 180 billion tons. Each year we emit into the atmosphere more about 9 billion tons, and this number is increasing annually by almost 6%. As a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air these days - a little more than 400 parts per million - higher than at any time in the last eight thousand years. It is likely that even in the last few million years.

If it goes further, then by 2050 the CO2 concentration exceeds 500 parts per million, which is about twice the pre-industrial level. It is assumed that such an increase would lead to an increase in global average temperature by 2-4 ° C, and this, in turn, starts the chain of events that change our world, including the disappearance of most of the remaining glaciers, flooding of low-lying islands and coastal cities, as well as the melting of the Arctic ice cap. But this is only half the story.

Ocean covers 70% of the Earth's surface, and anywhere where water is in contact with air, exchange occurs therebetween. The gases from the atmosphere absorbed by the ocean, and gases dissolved in the ocean, are released into the atmosphere. When the system is in equilibrium, approximately the same amount of gas is dissolved and released. But it is necessary to change the composition of the atmosphere - what we have done - and the exchange becomes one-sided: the water flows more carbon dioxide than it takes. It turns out the man is constantly adding CO2 into the sea - about the same as it is done by underwater fumaroles, but from above, not from below, and in a global scale. This year alone, the oceans absorb 2.5 billion tons of carbon, and the next supposedly absorb as much more. Virtually every American every day is pumped into the sea three kilograms of carbon.

Due to these excess CO2 average value of pH (hydrogen ion exponent) of ocean surface water has dropped from 8.2 to 8.1. Like Richter, pH range logarithmicSo that even such a small numerical difference reflects a very large real change. Reduced pH 0.1 means that the acidity of the oceans is now 30% higher than in 1800 year. If people continue to burn fossil fuels, the oceans will continue to absorb carbon dioxide, and thus will become more acidification.

If it goes on and on and the same quantity of carbon emissions continue, pH of ocean surface water to the middle of this century will drop to 8.0 by the end of the century - to 7.8.

So, the oceans will be 150% more acidification than at the beginning of the industrial revolution.

from CO2 emissions of underwater fumaroles of water around the Castello Aragonese fairly accurately show what the oceans will become in the future. That's why I swim around the island in January, gradually numb with cold. Here it is an opportunity today to swim - or even drown, I think I'm in a moment of panic - in the seas of tomorrow. […]

Animals collected Buyey and Hall-Spencer around the Castello Aragonese and placed in aquariums laboratories engaged in the basement of the building, first looked sluggish - to my untrained eye, perhaps, even inanimate. However, after a while they started to move and look for food. There was no one starfish tentacles, a handful of frail species of coral polyps, as well as a few sea urchins, who moved to the aquarium via tens thin nozhek- "ducts" (each such leg works on the hydraulic principle, stretching and contracting as a function of the pressure water). In addition, there was a sea cucumber fifteen centimeters long, like a blood sausage, or, even worse, on a piece of shit. In the cold laboratory devastating effects of carbonic fumaroles became apparent.

Osilinus turbinatus - common Mediterranean snail with shell covered with alternating black and white spots, as snakeskin. However Osilinus turbinatus aquarium was not illustrated: the upper layer is embossed and sinks appeared corroded exposed bottom - smooth and snow white. Limpet Patella caerulea resembles a Chinese straw hat shape. Sinks several individuals had profound damage, which could be seen through a yellowish-gray bodies of their respective owners. It seems as if they had been dipped in acid - in a sense, the way it is.

"Because it is very important that the human body puts a lot of effort to ensure constant pH of our blood, - says Hall-Spencer, raising his voice to drown the sound of water. - However, some of the lower animals do not have the physiological capacity. They are forced to endure everything that happens around - and reaches its limit. " […]

In the vicinity of Castello Aragonese underwater fumarole create gradient pH. The waters off the eastern tip of the island is almost not subjected to acidification. This area can be considered a modern Mediterranean. But the closer to fumaroles acidity of water increases and the pH, respectively, is reduced. [...] [The researchers] have a record of all species living in areas with different acidity. To this end, along the coast were placed metal frame through which recorded each individual mussels, barnacles and limpets, the trailer to the coastal rocks. Not only that - the researchers had to sit for hours under water, sailing counting fish.

In the waters away from fumaroles Hall-Spencer and his colleagues found quite typical Mediterranean species community. Including: sponge Agelas oroides, reminiscent of the foam core; fish Sarpa salpa, often Eat and sometimes cause hallucinations, and sea urchin Arbacia lixula lilac hue. Also in the area inhabited by bushy pinkish Amphiroa rigida algae and green algae Halimeda tuna, growing as connected with each other discs. (The study was limited to only large enough organisms that are visible to the naked eye.) In this zone, free from the influence of the fumaroles, 69 species were recorded and 51 species plants.

When the Hall-Spencer and his team have begun to areas closer to the fumaroles, the results were quite differentVolcanic carbon dioxide vents show ecosystem effects of ocean acidification.. Barnacle Balanus perforatus, resembling a small gray volcano, found in abundance from West Africa to Wales. In the zone with the value of pH 7,8, which corresponds seas not too distant future, this species was not. Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) blue-black color common to the Mediterranean, so can be easily adapted to different conditions, that has taken root in many parts of the world as an invasive species. She was not there. Also failed to find hard reddish seaweed Corallina elongata and Corallina officinalis, worm serpulidae Pomatoceros triqueter, three species of coral polyps, several species of snails and shellfish Arca noae, known as "Noah's Ark". In general, in the zone with the value of pH 7,8 it was completely absent third species found in the zone without the fumarole.

"Sadly, but critical pH, at which the ecosystem begins to collapse, on average equal 7.8, and we believe that it will be achieved by 2100 - tells me Hall-Spencer in his low-key British manner. - And it's very disturbing. "

Over the past 500 million years the Earth has undergone five mass extinctions of species. And now comes the 6th, and this time it is caused solely by human activities. Elizabeth Colbert journalist visited different parts of the world and talked about what I learned. In 2015, the book won the Pulitzer Prize. Translation from English under the editorship of Alena Yakimenko.

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